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It is found ( among other things ) that :
• There are strong correlations between the levels of socioeconomic inequality in a country and higher pollution of pharmaceuticals in the rivers ;
• high levels of pharmaceutical pollution were most positively associated with regions of high local unemployment and poverty rates ;
• the most pharmaceutically polluted countries and regions of the world are the ones that have been researched the least in the past – as alluded to , namely parts of sub-Saharan Africa , South America and South Asia . These regions have a high presence of multinational pharmaceutical companies ( MNCs ) – as subsidiaries of the parent companies based in developed countries . By extension , the same regions and hotspots have high levels of pharmaceutical pollutant concentration .
For example , “ the highest mean cumulative concentration was observed in Lahore , Pakistan at 70.8 µ g / L , with one sampling site reaching a maximum cumulative concentration of 189 µ g / L .
This was followed by La Paz , Bolivia ( 68.9 µ g / L mean , 297 µ g / L maximum ) and Addis Ababa , Ethiopia ( 51.3 µ g / L mean , 74.2 µ g / L maximum ). The most polluted sampling site was located in the Rio Seke ( La Paz , Bolivia ) and had a cumulative API concentration of 297 µ g / L . This sampling site was associated with both untreated sewage discharge and rubbish disposal along the river ’ s bank .
Unlike North America and the Western hemisphere , lack of sophisticated waste removal technologies ( natural , e . g ., via micro-organisms and industrial via , e . g ., peracetic acid ) and lax enforcement of regulations to mitigate pharmaceutical pollution are common in developing and less developing countries , particularly in the regions concerned .
In Malaysia , the focus on pharmaceutical pollution has often been neglected .
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
The pharmaceutical industry here is controlled by the MOH ’ s Drug Control Authority ( DCA ) with the NPRA as the secretariat and technical body . The DCA ’ s executive and legal role ( as delineated / provided for under the Control of Drugs and
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Cosmetics Regulation , 1984 ) is to ensure that every pharmaceutical product marketed in the country is safe and of sound quality .
The NPRA provides technical support by testing the pharmaceutical products ’ quality and safety ( quality control ( QC ) and performance evaluation .
Currently , Malaysia ’ s core legislation on the environment is the Environmental Quality Act ( 1974 ). No laws specifically target pharmaceutical pollution as a discrete category in its own right .
A high number of Malaysians in less developed states source water from groundwater sources .
Kelantan , Terengganu , Kedah , Perlis , Pahang , Sabah and Sarawak are the highest users of groundwater as a source of drinking water . But the federal government has been keen to tap into groundwater as a viable alternative source for the nation as a whole ( see , “ Tapping into groundwater is the way forward , says PM , New Straits Times , Mar 26 , 2022 ). If this is implemented , Malaysians might be at heightened risk of groundwater contamination if pharmaceutical pollution isn ’ t definitively tackled .
Already in what could be deemed as a “ rare ” finding as contained in “ Detecting Human Pharmaceutical Pollutants in Malaysian Aquatic Environment : A new challenge for water quality management ” ( chapter in Contemporary environmental quality management in Malaysia and selected countries , UPM Press , 2011 ), results show that APIs have polluted the Hulu Langat River , and sewage treatment don ’ t totally remove these pollutants . Mefenamic acid , salicylic acid and glibenclamide are the most common pharmaceutical residues found in the Hulu Langat River (“ The occurrence of human pharmaceuticals in wastewater effluents and surface water of Langat River and its tributaries , Malaysia ”, International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry , 93 ( 3 ), 2011 ).
The ineffectiveness of our conventional STPs is confirmed by Dr Nurfaizah Abu Tahrim from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia ( UKM ) – which aren ’ t designed to treat pharmaceutical waste ( See “ Environmental implications of pharmaceutical waste , Borneo Post Online , Jan 27 , 2021 ).
UPGRADE STPS EMIR Research would like to
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The government at all three levels ( federal , state , local ) should be more committed to tackling river and landfill pollution by rigorously and uncompromisingly enforcing the legislation ( primary ) and regulations ( secondary ) on the pharmaceutical industries .” |
recommend that due attention be afforded to upgrading our STPs to ensure that they deploy the latest waste removal technology – natural and industrial – such as solar photolysis ( conversion of photon energy comprising of waves of electromagnetic radiation by which the contaminants are exposed – a process of irradiation ) and advanced oxidation processes / AOPs ( e . g ., thermal plasma – increasing reactive oxygen and nitrogen species to dissolve in water and break down contaminants ), respectively , which targets explicitly at pharmaceuticalbased / driven pollution .
The government at all three levels ( federal , state , local ) should be more committed to tackling river and landfill pollution by rigorously and uncompromisingly enforcing the legislation ( primary ) and regulations ( secondary ) on the pharmaceutical industries .
Regular inspections and audits should be carried out at all three levels , and these activities should be coordinated and synchronised accordingly . At the same time , the pharmaceutical industries should be assessed by private auditors in compliance with the ESG ( environmental , social and governance ) due diligence . Independent , non-executive directors should be empowered and trained to scrutinise and monitor pharmaceutical polluting activities .
At the micro-level , every pharmacist , medicine administrator in hospitals and clinics , and pharmacies should educate and inform patients to dispose of expired or unused drugs properly . This will prevent patients from disposing of the prescribed and non-prescribed ( i . e ., “ over the counter or OTC ) drugs improperly ( e . g ., flushing down the toilet bowl ). This is to ensure pharmaceutical wastes from contaminating the STPs – as pre-emptive and precautionary measures .
In conclusion , we need to be more aware and mindful of the harm from pharmaceutical pollution and go the extra mile in tackling these emerging challenges . – ESG
Jason Loh and Jachintha Joyce are part of the research team at EMIR Research , an independent think tank focused on strategic policy recommendations based on rigorous research .
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